Bronze balsamarium (unguent or perfume container) shaped as a youth’s head. Roman, Imperial period (ca. 2nd c. CE?). Find spot unknown.

Citation: Image courtesy of Vassil, taken on November 8, 2015 at the Musée Royal de Mariemont, Belgium. (Inv. ??). CC0 1.0. Public Domain

Vase shaped as a soldier. Terracotta. Roman Imperial period, ca. 100s CE. Image courtesy of the Allard Pierson Museum, Collections of the University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Inv. APM07316. Public Domain. https://uvaerfgoed.nl/viewer/image/11245_3_1098/1/

Kylix (drinking cup) with African warrior in tondo (center). Terracotta bilingual pottery (both black- and red-figure style). Archaic Greek, likely from Athens, ca. 500s BCE-400s BCE. Courtesy of the Menil Collection, Houston TX (#1987-05.DJ). Public Domain.

Alabastron (oil vessel) with an archer dressed in foreign ‘eastern’ clothing (decorated long-sleeved tunic & trousers). White-ground terracotta. Archaic Greek, probably from Athens, ca. 485 BCE. Courtesy of the Menil Collection, Houston TX (#1979-42.DJ). Public Domain.

Depictions like this appear frequently after Persia’s invasion of Greece. (Individuals from many different nations, including African nations, were part of Persia’s invading force). The inscription kalos (‘beautiful’) appears twice on this vase: the archer is being admired for his beauty.

Terracotta amphora (storage vessel) depicting a squire/armed attendant with a horse. Archaic black-figure style, ca. 520 BCE-500 BCE. From Greece, likely Athenian. (The amphora’s other side depicts the fight between Herakles & Apollo over the Delphic Tripod, so the squire/armed attendant is likely Herakles’ companion). Courtesy of the Menil Collection, Houston TX (#1983-035.DJ). Public Domain.

Balsamarium (perfume jar), formed as the bust of a man. His necklace suggests he is enslaved. Terracotta, made from a mold. Hellenistic or Roman Egypt, ca. 300 BCE – 300 CE. This jar could be worn around the neck. The shape of a ‘perfume bearer’ lent prestige to the jar’s contents (& to the jar’s owner). Courtesy of the Menil collection, Houston TX (#Y.105.01). Public Domain.

Balsamarium (perfume flask) shaped as the bust of a man. Terracotta, made from a mold. This jar could be worn around the neck. The shape of a ‘perfume bearer’ lent prestige to the jar’s contents (& to the jar’s owner). Hellenistic or Roman period, ca. 300 BCE-300 CE. From Egypt, Al Ashmunayan. Courtesy of the Menil Collection, Houston TX (#Y.105.02). Public Domain.

Balsamarium (perfume jar) formed as the bust of a man. Terracotta, made from a mold & designed to be hung by straps (possibly around the wearer’s neck). The shape of a ‘perfume bearer’ lent prestige to the jar’s contents (& to the jar’s owner). From Hellenistic or Roman Egypt, ca. 300 BCE-300 CE. Courtesy of the Menil Collection, Houston TX (#Y105.03). Public Domain.

Askos/Balsamarium (perfumed oil vase), terracotta fragment. This is a broken spout from a larger container. It is formed as the head of a man or a woman. The shape of a ‘perfume bearer’ lent prestige to the jar’s contents (& to the jar’s owner). Hellenistic or Roman Egypt, ca. 300 BCE-300 CE. Courtesy of the Menil Collection, Houston TX (#CA.7020). Public Domain.

Terracotta askos (perfume flask) shaped as a reclining woman. Hellenistic or Roman Egypt, ca. 300 BCE-300 CE. The shape of a ‘perfume bearer’ lent prestige to the jar’s contents (& to the jar’s owner). Her nakedness indicates either: ‘eroticism’ (as advertisement for the jar’s contents & effect); that she is enslaved; or both. Courtesy of the Menil Collection, Houston TX (#Y.108). Public Domain.

Portrait vessel from Europe or Western Asia. Ceramic with lead glaze. Roman, ca. 100s CE-200s CE. Image courtesy of the Menil Collection, Houston TX (#CA.6920). Public Domain.

Ceramic vessels could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period (though, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty/exoticism).

Bronze balsamarium (perfume/ointment container) bust of a child. Roman era, Hellenistic Greek, ca.100s CE – 200s CE. Probably from Samanud, Egypt. Image courtesy of the Rhode Island School of Design Museum, Providence, RI; Gift of Mrs. Gustav Radeke (Obj. 11.035). CC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication. Public Domain.

Terracotta vase formed as a sleeping youth. The youth’s exhaustion & nakedness could suggest that he is an enslaved servant. Cypriot, from the Hellenistic era, ca. 200s BCE-100s BCE. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 74.51.2263). Public Domain.

A youth grooms a horse. Terracotta red-figure style kylix (drinking cup) painted by Onesimos. From Archaic Athens, ca. 490 BCE. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 1989.281.71). Public Domain.

Terracotta aryballos (perfumed oil flask) with a scene from the epic poem: The Pygmies vs. the Cranes. Its potter was Nearchos. Archaic Greek, Athenian black-figure style, ca. 570 BCE. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 26.49). Public Domain.

A terracotta, red-figure style column-krater (pot for mixing water & wine) depicts a workshop scene: the gods watch craftsmen painting a sculpture of Herakles. (In the lower left corner, a youth of African heritage tends a brazier). Late Classical, Greek, South Italian (Apulian), ca. 360 BCE-350 BCE. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 50.11.4). Public Domain.

Oil flask (aryballos) formed into the heads of two men (Janus-style, i.e., facing opposite directions) . The shape of a ‘perfume bearer’ (or in this case, ‘perfume bearers’) lent prestige to both the jar’s contents & owner. Greek Athenian terracotta; late classical period (ca. 420s BCE). Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 27.122.21). Public Domain.

The Aithiopian prince Memnon stands between his Aithiopian squires. (This pot’s other side depicts an unknown goddess between Apollo & Hermes). Athenian black-figure style amphora (terracotta); made & painted by Exekias, ca. 530 BCE. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 98.8.13). Public Domain.

Cypriot terracotta jug decorated with a man (identified as a man of African heritage) wearing a tunic & carrying two spears. Cypro-Archaic, ca. 750 BCE-600 BCE. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 74.51.532). Public Domain.

Terracotta red-figure fragment from a kylix with the upper torso of a youth. Greek, Athenian. Late Archaic period, ca. 490 BCE-480 BCE. Image courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept. (Gift of Dietrich von Bothmer, Distinguished Research Curator, Greek & Roman Art, 2011, Obj. 2011.604.1.883). Public Domain.

Terracotta red-figure fragments showing Busiris & Herakles (possibly a scene from a play). A fragment from this pot’s other side shows Ariadne & Dionysus. Greek, South Italian (Lucanian), Late Classical period (ca. 400 BCE-360 BCE). Possibly painted by the Dolon Painter. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 58.13.1a-c). Public Domain.

In Greek myth, the Egyptian Pharaoh Busiris tried to end a famine by sacrificing Herakles. Herakles killed Busiris to escape. Busiris is often portrayed as an ‘Ethiopian’ — suggested here by his (& his attendants’) tight, curly hair. Herakles (the figure with the club) also has curly hair.

A terracotta, red-figure style oinochoe (wine jug) shaped like the head of a man or woman. Classical, Greek, Athenian, ca. 480 BCE. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 00.11.1). Public Domain.

Wine jugs could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period (though, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty/exoticism).

Etruscan terracotta jug shaped into the head of a youth. Classical period, Etruscan/Italian, ca. 300s BCE. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 03.3.1). Public Domain.

Wine jugs could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period (though, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty/exoticism).

Terracotta red-figure style rhyton (vase for pouring libations or for drinking) of a youth attacked by a Nile crocodile. Late Classical period, Greek, South Italian (Apulian), ca. 350 BCE-300 BCE. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Obj. 55.11.3). Public Domain.

Wine jugs/mugs could be formed into all types of shapes. Men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period. Again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty, so even though this pot’s theme (which we see repeatedly!) has ‘black’ figures attacked by crocodiles, it could be due to the fact that darker skinned people lived along the Nile (i.e., due to geography). If these jugs/rhyta do represent a particular concept, it is unlikely the victim’s ‘color’ promotes negative commentary about ‘black’ people (since ancient cultures did not ‘do’ skin-color-based racial constructs).

Terracotta black-glaze askos (perfume/oil jar) of a youth asleep against an amphora. Greek, South Italian (Campanian). Late classical, 4th c. BCE. Southern Italy was known for its complex figural askos forms. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek and Roman Art Dept (Rogers Fund, 1906, Obj. 06.1021.268). Public Domain.

Terracotta black-glaze askos (perfume/oil jar) of a youth catching a duck. Greek, South Italian (Campania). Late classical, 4th c. BCE. Southern Italy was known for its complex figural askos forms. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept (Rogers Fund, 1941, Obj. 41.162.45). Public Domain.

Etruscan black gloss mug, shaped like the head of a youth (wearing a wreath decorated with a central medallion). Late classical-to-early Hellenistic (late 4th c. BCE). Etruscan. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art Dept (Gift of El Conde de Lagunillas, 1956, Obj.5649.2). Public Domain.

Wine jugs could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period (though, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty/exoticism).

Translucent blue-green glass cup of smiling man wearing an ivy wreath and globular pendant earrings (blown in a three part mold). Roman, early imperial, Flavian, second half of the 1st c. CE. Images courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art department (Gift of Henry G. Marquand, 1881, Obj.81.10.226). Public Domain.

Glass cup shaped as a man’s head (with plaited hair, a wreath with leaves & berries, and round drop earrings); blown in a 4 part mold. Roman; early Imperial, Flavian, 2nd half of the 1st c. CE. Possibly from Scythopolis (Beit She’an, Israel)? Images courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art department (H.O. Havemeyer Collection, Bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havemeyer, 1929, Obj. 29.100.75). Public Domain.

Red-glazed terracotta jug shaped as the head of a man. Roman, Imperial period, 3rd c. BCE. Image courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Greek & Roman Art dept; Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917 (Obj.17.194.859). Public Domain.

Wine jugs could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period.

Terracotta Italic lekythos (oil flask) with janiform heads. Made in Italy by Etruscans.late Classical period, ca. 4th c. BCE. This Etruscan vase is unusual for janiform-style because it uses the same mold for each head but paints them differently (rather than using heads made from different molds). The head on the right is made to represent a man of African heritage, the one on the left represents a satyr. Image courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum, New York; Greek & Roman Art Department; The Rogers Fund, 1906. Obj. no. 06.1021.204. Public Domain.

Fragmentary terracotta actor’s mask. Greek, Ptolemaic, Hellenistic period, ca. 200s BCE-100s BCE. From Egypt, Naukratis (a Greek colony). Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Egypt Exploration Fund (Accession #86.466). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

African red-slip bowl with relief of a boy (possibly Arion?) on a dolphin. Late Roman provincial work, from Tunisia, ca. 320 CE-400 CE. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift of Mary B. Comstock (Accession #1988.1086). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

African red-slip jug with a relief of a potter at his wheel. Roman Provincial work, made in Tunisia. Roman Imperial Period, ca. 200 CE-50 CE. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Dora S. Pinter Fund (Accession #1983.515). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

African red-slip ware bowl with Orpheus and animals. Late Roman Provincial work, from Tunisia, ca. 320 CE-60 CE. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, John Wheelock Elliot and John Morse Elliot Fund (Accession #1981.658). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Note how this version of Orpheus is a man of African heritage wearing ‘eastern’ garb & playing a lyre made from what appear to be antelope horns.

African red-slip ware bowl with relief stamps depicting the sacrifice of Isaac. Late Roman Provincial work, from Tunisia, ca. 340 CE-440 CE. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Benjamin and Lucy Rowland Fund (Accession #1989.690). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

African warrior oil flask (alabastron). He is dressed in ‘Eastern’ clothing associated with the Persians. Greek, late Archaic period, ca. 490-80 BCE. Athenian white-ground black-figure style. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund (Accession #98.927). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Depictions like this appear frequently after Persia’s invasion of Greece. (Individuals from many different nations, including African nations, were part of Persia’s invading force).

Mug shaped into the head of a young man. Italic, Etruscan. Late Classical or early Hellenistic Period, ca. 350 BCE-300 BCE. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, GIft of W.A. Gardner (Accession #07.863). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Wine cups could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period (though, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty, i.e., were exotic). Aristocratic symposia (drinking parties) were also settings where the beauty of young men was celebrated.

Mug shaped into the head of a young man. Italic, Latin, Faliscan. Late Classical to Early Hellenistic Period, ca. 350 BCE-300 BCE. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift of W.A. Gardner (Accession #07.864). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Wine cups could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period (though, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty, i.e., were exotic). Aristocratic symposia (drinking parties) were also settings where the beauty of young men was celebrated.

Red-figure style pelike (jug) depicting the Ethiopian princess Andromeda’s sacrifice to the Ketus. The pelike’s other side shows King Cepheus & an Ethiopian porter. Painted by the Niobid Painter. Greek, Athenian, Classical Period, ca. 450 BCE – 440 BCE. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Arthur Tracy Cabot Fund (Accession #63.2663). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Andromeda is painted a ‘regular’ red-figure color but dressed in foreign/Persian-identified clothing. Her Ethiopian attendants are painted with black glaze. Her difference could be ethnocentric (as a mythological heroine, she may be viewed as ‘part-Greek’), or it could simply mark her as the pot’s focus/’heroine.’

Terracotta red-figure style rhyton (here, a drinking horn) of a youth being attacked by a crocodile. Maenads and satyrs decorate the mug rim, which is appropriae to this object’s use as a wine-cup. Found in Italy, near Santa Maria Capua Vetere. Made in Athens, Greece; Classical Period, ca. 460 BCE. Image courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Henry Lillie Pierce Fund (Accession # 98.881). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Wine jugs/mugs could be formed into all types of shapes. Men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period. Again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty, so even though this pot’s theme (which we see repeatedly!) has ‘black’ figures attacked by crocodiles, it could be due to the fact that darker skinned people lived along the Nile (i.e., due to geography). If these jugs/rhyta do represent a particular concept, it is unlikely the victim’s ‘color’ promotes negative commentary about ‘black’ people (since ancient cultures did not ‘do’ skin-color-based racial constructs).

Wine jug fragment shaped as the heads of two men. Greek, Ptolemaic, Hellenistic Period, ca. 323 BCE-331 BCE. From Egypt, Naukratis (a Greek colony). Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; The Egypt Exploration Fund (Accession #86.448). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Black-figure kantharos (wine cup) with molded face of a man on each side (each face looks the same). East Greek, made in Asia Minor (Ionia, in the city-state of Miletus). Archaic period, ca. 550 BCE-530 BCE. The man’s features (his thin mustache, pierced ears, and eye shape, which the paint emphasizes) suggest that he is Anatolian. Image courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; the Henry Lillie Pierce Fund (Accession #98.925). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Wine cups could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period. Aristocratic symposia (drinking parties) were also settings where the beauty of young men was celebrated.

Red-figure style kantharos shaped as two women’s heads. In the cream-colored band just above their heads is inscribed: καλὸς ὁ παῖς (‘beautiful is the lad’). Made in Athens, Greece; late Archaic period, ca. 510-480 BCE. Found in Tanagra (in Boeotia, Greece). Image courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Henry Lillie Pierce Fund (Accession #98.926). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Wine cups could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period (though, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty, i.e., were exotic). Aristocratic symposia (drinking parties) were also settings where the beauty of young men was celebrated.

Aryballos (perfume or oil flask) in the shape of two male heads; Epilykos Class. (Left: Side 1; Right: Side 2). Made in Athens, Greece; late Archaic period, ca. 510 BCE. Find spot is unknown. The shape of a ‘perfume bearer’ (or in this case, ‘perfume bearers’) lent prestige to both the jar’s contents & owner. (And, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were considered beautiful & exotic). Images courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Henry Lillie Pierce Fund (Accession #98.888). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Faience perfume aryballos formed as the head of man. East Greek; Archaic period, 6th c. BCE. Found (and probably made) in the Greek settlement of Naukratis, in Egypt. Image courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; the Bartlett Collection (Accession #03.835). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Terracotta fragment of a relief ware goblet depicting a man in a white chiton & cap. He is carrying/balancing a pole with a basket and an amphora. East Greek; Hellenistic period, ca. 2nd c. BCE- late-1st c. BCE. Found at Naukratis, Egypt. Image courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; The Egypt Exploration Fund (Accession #88.897). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Terracotta black-figure style mug shaped as a man’s head. Made in Athens, Greece; Archaic period, ca. 510 BCE. Image courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; Henry Lillie Pierce Fund (Accession #00332). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

Wine cups could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were also popular during the classical period (though, again, ‘Ethiopians’ were admired for their beauty, i.e., were exotic). Aristocratic symposia (drinking parties) were also settings where the beauty of young men was celebrated.

Athenian red-figure style figurative cup supported by/shaped as a pygmy dragging a crane. According to the epic tradition, there was an ongoing battle between cranes and pygmies (see, e.g., Iliad book 3’s opening simile in lines 1-9). Greek, Athenian; Classical period, ca.440 BCE. Image courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; The Bartlett Collection (Accession #03.799). www.mfa.org. Public Domain.

An archer (possibly Memnon at Troy?) flanked by Amazons. Greek, Archaic, Athenian black-figure style (possiby painted by the ‘Swing Painter’), ca. 550 BCE-525 BCE. Courtesy of the Royal Museums of Art & History, Brussels, Belgium. (Image via Wikimedia Commons). Public Domain.

Attic white ground alabastron with African warrior. Made in Athens, Greece; late Archaic – Classical period, ca. 500 BCE – 480 BCE. Image courtesy of Daderot, taken on June 15th, 2015 at the Krannert Art Museum, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. (Obj. DSC06531). Public Domain. CC0 1.0.

Depictions like this appear frequently after Persia’s invasion of Greece. (Individuals from many different nations, including African nations, were part of Persia’s invading force).

An alabastron (oil flask) with an ‘Ethiopian’ archer. Greek, Attic white-ground style, late Archaic period, ca. 480 BCE. Courtesy of the Getty Open Content Program (Obj. 71.AE.202.1). Public Domain.

Depictions like this appear frequently after Persia’s invasion of Greece. (Individuals from many different nations, including African nations, were part of Persia’s invading force).

Aryballos (oil or perfume flask) shaped as a man’s head. Greek, Athenian. Classical period, ca. 480 BCE-430 BCE. The shape of a ‘perfume bearer’ lent prestige to both the jar’s contents & owner. (And, too, ‘Ethiopians’ were considered beautiful & exotic). Image courtesy of the Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, Maryland (#48.2017). CC0 1.0 Deed. Public Domain.

The Athiopian prince Memnon at Troy, flanked by Aithiopian comrades. Terracotta, black figure-style storage vessel (Side A). A pot by the ‘Leagros Group’ of painters, from Athens, Greece. Archaic period, ca. the late 6th c. BCE (late 500s BCE). Photo courtesy of Bibi Saint-Pol, taken on Feb. 13th, 2007 at the Staatliche Antikensammungen, München (Inv. 1507 / J541). Public Domain.

Head of a man. Terracotta; pendant or weight(?). From Greece, Hellenistic period, ca. 200 BCE-1 BCE. Image courtesy of the Art Institute of Chicago; Museum Purchase Fund (Ref. #1889.300). CC0. Public Domain.

Ceramic red-figure janiform kantharos (two-sided head-shaped drinking cup): Satyr & Man of African Heritage. (This composite image focuses on the man). Made in Athens, Greece; Classical period, ca 470 BCE – 460 BCE. Images courtesy of The Cleveland Museum of Art, John L. Severance Fund, 1979.69. Public Domain.

Wine cups could be formed into all types of shapes. Human heads of men, women, gods, & mythological figures were popular during the classical period.

Plastic oinochoe (wine pitcher) shaped as a man’s head. Made in Athens; late Archaic period, ca. 520 BCE – 510 BCE. Part of the ‘Class of Louvre’ group (the group’s name piece). Image taken by Jastrow on January 11th, 2006 at the Louvre, Paris, France, Department of Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Campana Collection. (Inv. H 62 / Cp 3700). Image made Public Domain by Jastrow.