A Scholar. Fresco fragment from the ‘Villa of Catullus’ at Sirmione on Lake Garda (in Italy). Roman, ca. 1st c. BCE to 1st c. CE.

Citation: Image courtesy of Gareth Harney. CC BY-SA 4.0.

Mosaic of boxers with a palm of victory between them. From the Roman baths of Tarnaias, in Massongex, Switzerland; Roman Imperial period, ca. 1st c. CE or ca. 150-60 CE. The left boxer wears caestūs, heavy, stiffened leather gloves with metal knuckles. (FYI: the plural of caestus is caestūs). We see evidence for the bracing/reinforcement of the left boxer’s caestūs (leather straps that extended up the forearm, sometimes even to the shoulder). The right boxer wears either shoulder-length reinforced caestūs, manicae (leather/cloth arm coverings, often studded with metal), or both. His extended right arm’s ‘fingers’ could be spikes, which were not uncommon caestus fixtures.

Citation: Image courtesy of Carole Raddato, taken on September 10th, 2020, at the Café of the Roman Vault, Massongex, Switzerland. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Fresco from the House of Meleager at Pompeii. Roman, ca. 62-79 CE. A scene from Vergil’s Aeneid: Queen Dido on her throne with attendants to her right & Africa’s (or Carthage’s) embodiment (a woman wearing an elephant-tusk headdress) to her left, as Aeneas’ ship sails away in the background.

Citation: Photo courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on March 5, 2026 at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (Inv. #8898). CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

Detail of figures to Dido’s right. Photo by Leah Himmelhoch (March 5, 2026).

Fresco depicting scenes of daily life in Pompeii: the sale of fabrics. From Pompeii, the Estate/Villa of Julia Felix, ca. 62-79 CE.

Citation: Photo courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on March 5th, 2026 at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (Inv. #9064). CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

Detail. Photo taken by Leah Himmelhoch (March 5th 2026).

Fresco with a Nilotic scene: some pygmies fight a hippopotamus, while others fight and capture crocodiles. From Pompeii, the House of the Doctor; ca. 55-79 CE.

Citation: Image courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on March 5th, 2026 at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (Inv. 113195). CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

Male portrait painted on glass (composite image). From Pompeii, 1st c. CE. Likely made by artists who came from Alexandria (Egypt) to work in Campania (given two similar pieces have been found in Naples & Cumae).

Photos taken by Leah Himmelhoch on March 5th, 2026 at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples (Inv. 132423). CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

Fresco, portrait of the baker Terentius Neo and his wife. From Pompeii, Italy, the House of Terentius Neo; late Neronian period(?), ca. 55-79 CE. He holds a scroll while his wife holds a writing tablet with a stylus, as they proudly display evidence of their education & literacy.

Citation: Photo courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on March 5th, 2026 at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

A composite image of two mosaic fragments, each showing a quadriga (chariot) racing at the local circus (chariot race track) in Paradas, Spain, where these fragments were found. Roman Imperial period, 4th c. CE (300s CE).

Citation: Photos courtesy of Carole Raddato, taken on Feb 6, 2016 at the Archaeological Museum of Seville. CC BY-SA 2.0.

Mosaic of bestiarii (Gladiators who fought wild animals) celebrating the night before a fight. Found in El Jem (present day El Djem, Tunisia); Roman Imperial period, ca 3rd c. CE.

It seems these celebrating bestiarii will be fighting wild bulls the next day. But they are being so raucous that the bull-keepers below them are complaining: “SILENTIV DORMIANT TAURI” – Silence/Keep quiet! The bulls are sleeping! From left to right, the gladiators above say: “[N]OS NVDI [F]IEMUVS” – We are going to get/be naked! “BIBERE VENIMUS” – We came to drink! “IA[M] MVLTV[M] LOQVIMINI” – You’re talking too much! “AVOCEMUR” – We’ll be summoned/called away! “NOS TRES TENEMUS” – We have/are having three (drinks)! (Note: Latin of this era dropped final ‘m’ sounds for polysyllabic words, which the spelling reflects: How to Pronounce Latin (Final -M)).

CITATION: Image courtesy of Pascal Radigue, taken in 2001 at the Bardo National Museum, Tunisia. (Accession no. unknown). CC BY-SA 3.0. (With further thanks to James Coverly’s post on the same mosaic).

Roman mosaic depicting an architect(?) overseeing the construction of a Christian Basilica. Found in Oued Rmel, Morocco; made ca. the 4th c. CE.

Citation: Photo courtesy of Giorces, taken on June 7th, 2007 at the Bardo National Museum, Tunisia. (Accession no. unknown). CC BY-2.5.

Mosaic depicting Daniel in the lions’ den. From a Christian funerary chapel in Borj el Youdi, Tunisia; ca. 4th c. CE -5th c. CE. The Latin: MEMORIA BLOSSI HONORATUS INGENU(U)S ACTOR PERFECIT (‘In memory of Blossus, Honoratus (his) free-born agent brought it to completion’).

Citation: Image courtesy of Ovva olfa, taken on August 28th, 2018, at The Bardo National Museum, Tunisia. (Accession no. unknown). CC-BY-SA 4.0.

Late 3rd c. CE mosaic depicting two boxers or pancratiasts. Found in northern Tunisia at Thuburbo Maius (‘Greater Thuburbo’), a Roman veteran colony founded by Augustus in 27 BCE. Thuburbo Maius absorbed the earlier Punic town Thuburbo (a name of Libyan/Berber origin).

Citation: Photo courtesy of Pascal Radigue, taken in 2007 at The Bardo National Museum. (Accession no. A 373). CC BY 3.0.

Mosaic of the Roman Circus at the Hippodrome of Gafsa (in southwestern Tunisia); made ca. 6th c. CE. It depicts a chariot race before a cheering crowd. In the lower right of the circus oval lies the body of a charioteer thrown from his car (he wears the same clothing and cape(?) as the charioteer above him). At the mosaic’s right edge, we see figures waiting in the carceres, the ‘starting gates’ for the chariots of the four factiones (teams): the blues, greens, reds, and whites.

Citation: Image courtesy of Dr. Chris Saladin (Rowan University), taken at the Bardo National Museum, Tunisia. (Accession no. A 19). The image was posted on Dr. Saladin’s website Digital Roman Carthage on October 31st, 2025. CC BY-NC 4.0.

Mosaic of a circus scene with four horses (and their trainers/charioteers?). From Roman Carthage, Tunisia, ca. 3rd c. CE. Each horse represents a different factio (team), as indicated by the colors of their handlers’ clothing (though damage makes some of the colors hard to identify): Pupillus represents team blue; Cupido represents team white; Amator represents team green; Aura represents team red.

Citation: Image courtesy of Carole Raddato, taken on February 17th, 2023 at the Sousse Archaeological Museum, Tunisia. (Accession no. unknown). CC BY-SA 2.0.

The ‘Magerius Mosaic’ depicting a venatio (beast hunt) — one, presumably, sponsored by Magerius. From Magerius’s villa in Smirat, Tunisia. Roman Imperial period, ca. 3rd c. CE. The Latin names the leopards and the gladiators. The goddess of the hunt, Diana, is center left; Magerius (or his steward) is in the center with bags of gold; Bacchus or Liber Pater is center right (upside down). The Latin surrounding Magerius/his steward describes Magerius’s generosity.

Citation: Image courtesy of Pascal Radigue, taken on May 4th, 2010 at the Sousse Archaeological Museum, Tunisia. (Accesion no. unknown). CC BY3.0

A mosaic depicting gladiators. Found on the Via Appia, Rome (Italy); ca. 3rd c. CE (200s CE). (Floor mosaics often ‘read’ from the ‘bottom-up’, since you approach the bottom panel before the top one). Bottom row: two lanistae (referees/ trainers) oversee a combat between Kalendio (a retiarius, ‘net fighter’, armed with trident & net) & Astyanax (a secutor, ‘pursuer’, the typical light-armed opponent of a retiarius). Top row: Astyanax won (vicit) & Kalendio died (the crossed out ‘o’ next to Kalendio’s name is an abbreviation for obiit, ‘he died’).

Citation: Photo courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on February 19th, 2026; National Archaeological Museum of Madrid. CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

A mosaic depicting gladiators. Found on the Via Appia, Rome (Italy); ca. 3rd c. CE (200s CE). (Floor mosaics often ‘read’ from the ‘bottom-up’, since you approach the bottom panel before the top one). Bottom row: Two lanistae (referees/trainers) oversee combat between Habilis & Maternus, who are equites gladiators (with swords, round shields, brimmed helmets with two feathers). Top row: Maternus dies (the crossed out ‘o’ after his name means obiit, ‘he died’); Habilis bids Maternus farewell(?). Bottom row Latin: QUIBUS PUGNANTIBUS SYMMACHIUS FERRUM MISIT (For the ones who fight, Symmachius guided/thrust the sword). Symmachius was either the games’ oganizor (editor) or the gladiators’ owner; either way, he ‘thrust/guided’ the sword that killed Maternus. Top row Latin: ME IO HAEC VIDEMUS SYMMACHI HOMO FELIX (Hooray, me! We are seeing these things/events. Symmachius, [you are] a lucky man).

Citation: Photo courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on February 19th, 2026; National Archaeological Museum of Madrid. CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

A mosaic depicting the quadriga (four-horse chariot) of the Green team (factio prasina) at the Circus Maximus. From Rome, 3rd c. CE (200s CE). Chariot racing was the most popular sport in Rome; Romans of all backgrounds & ranks were obsessed with their particular ‘team.’ There were four teams: Red, White, Green, Blue.

Citation: Photo courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on February 19th, 2026; National Archaeological Museum of Madrid. CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

A mosaic depicting the quadriga (four-horse chariot) of the Red team (factio russata) at the Circus Maximus. From Rome, 3rd c. CE (200s CE). Chariot racing was the most popular sport in Rome; Romans of all backgrounds & ranks were obsessed with their particular ‘team.’ There were four teams: Red, White, Green, Blue.

Citation: Photo courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken February 19th, 2026; National Archaeological Museum of Madrid. CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

A mosaic depicting the quadriga (four-horse chariot) of the Blue team (factio veneta) at the Circus Maximus. From Rome, 3rd c. CE (200s CE). Chariot racing was the most popular sport in Rome; Romans of all backgrounds & ranks were obsessed with their particular ‘team.’ There were four teams: Red, White, Green, Blue.

Citation: Photos courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on February 19th, 2026; Museo Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid. CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

(Details from this mosaic).

Floor mosaic depicting the god Dionysus fighting men of India. Found in Tusculum, Italy at the Villa Ruffinella; Roman Imperial period, ca. 300 CE – 350 CE.

Citation: Photo courtesy of Leah Himmelhoch, taken on February 27, 2026 at the Museo Nazionale Romano di Palazzo Massimo. CC BY-SA 4.0 International.

Roman mosaic of Europa being abducted by Zeus (who is disguised as a bull). Europa was a Phoenician princess of Tyre (the daughter of Tyre’s King Agenor). From ancient Byblos (Lebanon), ca. 200 CE – 300 CE.

Citation: Image courtesy of Carole Raddato, taken on October 9th, 2019 at the National Museum of Beirut, Lebanon (Accession no. unknown). CC BY-SA 2.0.

Tondo panel painting (tempera on wood) of the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus (ruled 193-211 CE), his Syrian wife Julia Domna & their sons Geta & Caracalla. Romano-Egyptian, ca. 200 CE. Septimius Severus, born in the province of Africa at Leptis Magna, was of Italian, Libyan, & Phoenician ancestry. Some argue that his darker skin here is not historical but follows Roman convention (of painting men with dark skin). Yet if an Egyptian mummy-portrait artist painted this (as has been convincingly argued), it likely reflects their historic appearance.

Citation: Image courtesy of the Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Antikensammlung. Obj. 681547. CC-BY-SA 4.0.

Geta’s face is scratched out: after Caracalla murdered Geta in 212 CE, he formally condemned Geta’s memory (an act called damnatio memoriae); every mention and depiction of Geta was destroyed.

Detail 1 of 3: hunters from a Nilotic mosaic depicting the flooding of the Nile (2 further details are below). From the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primogenia at Praeneste (Italy). Roman, ca. 100 BCE.

Citation: Image courtesy of Carole Raddato, taken on July 10 2018 at the Archaeological Museum of Palestrina, Italy (Accession no. unknown). CC BY-SA 2.0.

Detail 2 of 3: hunters from a Nilotic mosaic depicting the flooding of the Nile. From the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primogenia at Praeneste (Italy). Roman, ca. 100 BCE.

Citation: Image courtesy of Carole Raddato, taken on July 10 2018 at the Archaeological Museum of Palestrina, Italy (Accession no. unknown). CC BY-SA 2.0.

Detail 3 of 3: hunters from a Nilotic mosaic depicting the flooding of the Nile. From the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primogenia at Praeneste (Italy). Roman, ca. 100 BCE.

Citation: Image courtesy of Carole Raddato, taken on July 10 2018 at the Archaeological Museum of Palestrina, Italy (Accession no. unknown). CC BY-SA 2.0.